Understanding Parasitic Infections: The Ultimate Guide to Pathogenesis and Spread
Keywords:
Parasitic Infections, Pathogenesis, Immune Evasion, Disease Transmission, Host-Parasite Interaction, Vector-Borne Diseases
Abstract
Parasitic infections remain a global health challenge, affecting millions of individuals annually and imposing significant socioeconomic burdens. This study employs a comprehensive review approach to investigate parasitic infections. This comprehensive study delves into the mechanisms of pathogenesis and transmission strategies employed by various parasitic organisms. It explores the interplay between parasite biology, host immune responses, and environmental factors that facilitate infection spread. Key focus areas include the molecular pathways of host invasion, immune evasion tactics, and the role of vectors in disease propagation. The review also highlights advancements in diagnostic techniques, treatment strategies, and preventive measures, offering a holistic understanding of parasitic diseases and paving the way for innovative approaches in public health management.
References
Bouwmeester, Mark M., et al. "Collateral diseases: aquaculture impacts on wildlife infections." Journal of Applied Ecology 58.3 (2021): 453-464.
Sato, Shigeharu. "Plasmodium—a brief introduction to the parasites causing human malaria and their basic biology." Journal of physiological anthropology 40.1 (2021): 1.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Arsenopoulos, Konstantinos V., et al. "Haemonchosis: A challenging parasitic infection of sheep and goats." Animals 11.2 (2021): 363.
Vuitton, Dominique A., et al. "International consensus on terminology to be used in the field of echinococcoses." Parasite 27 (2020).
Gessese, Abebe Tesfaye. "Review on epidemiology and public health significance of hydatidosis." Veterinary medicine international 2020.1 (2020): 8859116.
Hotez, Peter J. Forgotten people, forgotten diseases: the neglected tropical diseases and their impact on global health and development. John Wiley & Sons, 2021.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Shokri, Azar, Sadaf Sabzevari, and Seyed Ahmad Hashemi. "Impacts of flood on health of Iranian population: Infectious diseases with an emphasis on parasitic infections." Parasite epidemiology and control 9 (2020): e00144.
Trasia, Reqgi First. "The role of the parasite life cycle in pathogenesis of infectious diseases." Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Sains dan Teknologi 7.1 (2022): 443556.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Valkiūnas, Gediminas, and Carter T. Atkinson. "Introduction to life cycles, taxonomy, distribution, and basic research techniques." Avian malaria and related parasites in the tropics: ecology, evolution and systematics (2020): 45-80.
Trasia, Reqgi First. "The role of the parasite life cycle in pathogenesis of infectious diseases." Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Sains dan Teknologi 7.1 (2022): 443556.
Santa, Maria A., et al. "A review on invasions by parasites with complex life cycles: the European strain of Echinococcus multilocularis in North America as a model." Parasitology 148.13 (2021): 1532-1544.
Benesh, Daniel P., Geoff Parker, and James C. Chubb. "Life-cycle complexity in helminths: What are the benefits?." Evolution 75.8 (2021): 1936-1952.
Cerutti, Aude, Nicolas Blanchard, and Sébastien Besteiro. "The bradyzoite: a key developmental stage for the persistence and pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis." Pathogens 9.3 (2020): 234.
Mévélec, Marie-Noëlle, Zineb Lakhrif, and Isabelle Dimier-Poisson. "Key limitations and new insights into the Toxoplasma gondii parasite stage switching for future vaccine development in human, livestock, and cats." Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology 10 (2020): 607198.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Runghen, Rogini, et al. "Network analysis: ten years shining light on host–parasite interactions." Trends in Parasitology 37.5 (2021): 445-455.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Pinto, Derek J., and Sumiti Vinayak. "Cryptosporidium: host-parasite interactions and pathogenesis." Current Clinical Microbiology Reports 8 (2021): 62-67.
Costa-da-Silva, Ana Caroline, et al. "Immune responses in leishmaniasis: an overview." Tropical medicine and infectious disease 7.4 (2022): 54.
Mukhopadhyay, Debanjan, David Arranz-Solís, and Jeroen PJ Saeij. "Influence of the host and parasite strain on the immune response during Toxoplasma infection." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10 (2020): 580425.
Elmahallawy, Ehab Kotb, Abdulsalam AM Alkhaldi, and Amira A. Saleh. "Host immune response against leishmaniasis and parasite persistence strategies: A review and assessment of recent research." Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 139 (2021): 111671.
Zheng, Shaowen, et al. "Porphyromonas gingivalis survival skills: Immune evasion." Journal of periodontal research 56.6 (2021): 1007-1018.
Hambrook, Jacob R., and Patrick C. Hanington. "Immune evasion strategies of schistosomes." Frontiers in immunology 11 (2021): 624178.
Mustafa, Hamssa M., Anas Abdullah Hamad, and Osama A. Mohsein. "Investigating Specific Calprotectin and Immunological Markers Associated With Intestinal Infections Caused by Entamoeba histolytica." Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 18.4 (2024).
Khan, Sameer Ullah, Kaneez Fatima, and Fayaz Malik. "Understanding the cell survival mechanism of anoikis-resistant cancer cells during different steps of metastasis." Clinical & experimental metastasis 39.5 (2022): 715-726.
Pinto, Derek J., and Sumiti Vinayak. "Cryptosporidium: host-parasite interactions and pathogenesis." Current Clinical Microbiology Reports 8 (2021): 62-67.
Badparva, Ebrahim, and Farnaz Kheirandish. "Blastocystis hominis: A pathogenic parasite." Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 15.4 (2020): e97388.
Rawat, Aadish, et al. "Cysteine proteases: Battling pathogenic parasitic protozoans with omnipresent enzymes." Microbiological Research 249 (2021): 126784.
Humayun, Mouhita, et al. "Innate immune cell response to host-parasite interaction in a human intestinal tissue microphysiological system." Science advances 8.18 (2022): eabm8012.
Pérez‐Mazliah, Damián, Alexander I. Ward, and Michael D. Lewis. "Host‐parasite dynamics in Chagas disease from systemic to hyper‐local scales." Parasite immunology 43.2 (2021): e12786.
Liempi, Ana, et al. "Comparative ex vivo infection with Trypanosoma cruzi and Toxoplasma gondii of human, canine and ovine placenta: Analysis of tissue damage and infection efficiency." Parasitology international 76 (2020): 102065.
Mukhopadhyay, Debanjan, David Arranz-Solís, and Jeroen PJ Saeij. "Influence of the host and parasite strain on the immune response during Toxoplasma infection." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10 (2020): 580425.
Frickel, Eva-Maria, and Christopher A. Hunter. "Lessons from Toxoplasma: Host responses that mediate parasite control and the microbial effectors that subvert them." Journal of Experimental Medicine 218.11 (2021): e20201314.
Hajj, Rana El, et al. "Toxoplasmosis: Current and emerging parasite druggable targets." Microorganisms 9.12 (2021): 2531.
Turner, Wendy C., et al. "The roles of environmental variation and parasite survival in virulence–transmission relationships." Royal Society open science 8.6 (2021): 210088.
Guttery, David S., et al. "Division and transmission: malaria parasite development in the mosquito." Annual Review of Microbiology 76.1 (2022): 113-134.
Hamad, A.A., Mustafa, H.M. & Mohsein, O.A. Detection of the levels of immune cytokines (IL4, IL5, TNF-α) in school-age and preschoolers with an Ascaris lumbricoides infection. J Parasit Dis 48, 782–787 (2024).
Wright, Ian, et al. "Parasites and vector-borne diseases disseminated by rehomed dogs." Parasites & vectors 13 (2020): 1-4.
Mojahed, Nooshin, Mohammad Ali Mohammadkhani, and Ashraf Mohamadkhani. "Climate crises and developing vector-borne diseases: a narrative review." Iranian journal of public health 51.12 (2022): 2664.
O'Neal, Anya J., et al. "Lipid hijacking: a unifying theme in vector-borne diseases." Elife 9 (2020): e61675.
Zahedi, Alireza, and Una Ryan. "Cryptosporidium–an update with an emphasis on foodborne and waterborne transmission." Research in Veterinary Science 132 (2020): 500-512.
Yugo, Danielle M., and Xiang-Jin Meng. "Hepatitis E virus: foodborne, waterborne and zoonotic transmission." International journal of environmental research and public health 10.10 (2013): 4507-4533.
Singal, Amit G., Pietro Lampertico, and Pierre Nahon. "Epidemiology and surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma: New trends." Journal of hepatology 72.2 (2020): 250-261.
Pullan, Rachel L., et al. "Spatial parasite ecology and epidemiology: a review of methods and applications." Parasitology 139.14 (2012): 1870-1887.
Farrell, Maxwell J., Lea Berrang-Ford, and T. Jonathan Davies. "The study of parasite sharing for surveillance of zoonotic diseases." Environmental Research Letters 8.1 (2013): 015036.\
De Vlas, S. J., et al. "Review papers: statistical models for estimating prevalence and incidence of parasitic diseases." Statistical Methods in Medical Research 2.1 (1993): 3-21.
Sissay, Menkir M., Arvid Uggla, and Peter J. Waller. "Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia." Tropical Animal Health and Production 39 (2007): 521-531.
Guerra, Carlos A., et al. "Assembling a global database of malaria parasite prevalence for the Malaria Atlas Project." Malaria journal 6 (2007): 1-13.
Noviyanti, Rintis, et al. "Implementing parasite genotyping into national surveillance frameworks: feedback from control programmes and researchers in the Asia–Pacific region." (2020): 1-20.
Farlow, Robert, Tanya L. Russell, and Thomas R. Burkot. "Nextgen Vector Surveillance Tools: sensitive, specific, cost-effective and epidemiologically relevant." Malaria journal 19.1 (2020): 432.
Goh, Brendon, et al. "The application of spectroscopy techniques for diagnosis of malaria parasites and arboviruses and surveillance of mosquito vectors: A systematic review and critical appraisal of evidence." PLoS neglected tropical diseases 15.4 (2021): e0009218.
Belkessa, Salem, et al. "Prevalence and clinical manifestations of Giardia intestinalis and other intestinal parasites in children and adults in Algeria." The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene 104.3 (2021): 910.
Mustafa, Hamssa Majid1; Hamad, Anas Abdullah2; Mohsein, Osama A.3,4. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia Predominance in Iraq’s Southern Governorates. International Journal of Environmental Health Engineering 13(1):10, April 2024.
Chagas, Úrsula Maira Russo, et al. "Correlations between tissue parasite load and common clinical signs in dogs naturally infected by Leishmania infantum." Veterinary Parasitology 291 (2021): 109368.
de Carvalho, Bruna Caroline, et al. "Multiparametric analysis of host and parasite elements in new world tegumentary leishmaniasis." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 12 (2022): 956112.
Garedaghi, Yagoob. "A review of the importance of stool test in the diagnosis of intestinal parasites." Int J Med Parasitol Epidemiol Sci Volume 1.2 (2020): 26.
Guzman, Carolina, Hector H. Garcia, and Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru. "Current diagnostic criteria for neurocysticercosis." Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine (2021): 197-203.
Yacubian, Elza Márcia, et al. "Common infectious and parasitic diseases as a cause of seizures: geographic distribution and contribution to the burden of epilepsy." Epileptic Disorders 6 (2022): 994-1019.
Pittman, Kelly J., and Laura J. Knoll. "Long-term relationships: the complicated interplay between the host and the developmental stages of Toxoplasma gondii during acute and chronic infections." Microbiology and molecular biology reviews 79.4 (2015): 387-401.
Halliez, Marie CM, and André G. Buret. "Extra-intestinal and long term consequences of Giardia duodenalis infections." World journal of gastroenterology: WJG 19.47 (2013): 8974.
Tavares, R. G., et al. "Molecular techniques for the study and diagnosis of parasite infection." Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 17 (2011): 239-248.
Ndao, Momar. "Diagnosis of parasitic diseases: old and new approaches." Interdisciplinary perspectives on infectious diseases 2009.1 (2009): 278246.
Zhang, Chi, et al. "Deep learning for microscopic examination of protozoan parasites." Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 20 (2022): 1036-1043.
Valkiūnas, Gediminas, et al. "A comparative analysis of microscopy and PCR-based detection methods for blood parasites." Journal of Parasitology 94.6 (2008): 1395-1401.
Ranjan, Koushlesh, P. Minakshi, and Gaya Prasad. "Application of molecular and serological diagnostics in veterinary parasitology." J Adv Parasitol 2.4 (2015): 80-99.
Singh, Balbir. "Molecular methods for diagnosis and epidemiological studies of parasitic infections." International Journal for Parasitology 27.10 (1997): 1135-1145.
Kumar, Niranjan, et al. "Internal parasite management in grazing livestock." Journal of parasitic diseases 37.2 (2013): 151-157.
Hutson, Kate Suzanne, et al. "A decision support tool for parasite management in fish aquaculture." Reviews in Aquaculture 14.3 (2022): 1656-1670.
Page, Stephen W. "Antiparasitic drugs." Small animal clinical pharmacology 2 (2008): 198-260.
Dziduch, Katarzyna, Dominika Greniuk, and Monika Wujec. "The current directions of searching for antiparasitic drugs." Molecules 27.5 (2022): 1534.
World Health Organization. "Prevention and control of intestinal parasitic infections: report of a WHO Expert Committee [meeting held in Geneva from 3 to 7 March 1986]." (1987).
Sadhukhan, Sanjoy Kumar. "Prevention and Control of Parasitic Zoonoses." Textbook of Parasitic Zoonoses. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2022. 83-90.
Sato, Shigeharu. "Plasmodium—a brief introduction to the parasites causing human malaria and their basic biology." Journal of physiological anthropology 40.1 (2021): 1.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Arsenopoulos, Konstantinos V., et al. "Haemonchosis: A challenging parasitic infection of sheep and goats." Animals 11.2 (2021): 363.
Vuitton, Dominique A., et al. "International consensus on terminology to be used in the field of echinococcoses." Parasite 27 (2020).
Gessese, Abebe Tesfaye. "Review on epidemiology and public health significance of hydatidosis." Veterinary medicine international 2020.1 (2020): 8859116.
Hotez, Peter J. Forgotten people, forgotten diseases: the neglected tropical diseases and their impact on global health and development. John Wiley & Sons, 2021.
Alvar, Jorge, et al. "Implications of asymptomatic infection for the natural history of selected parasitic tropical diseases." Seminars in immunopathology. Vol. 42. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2020.
Shokri, Azar, Sadaf Sabzevari, and Seyed Ahmad Hashemi. "Impacts of flood on health of Iranian population: Infectious diseases with an emphasis on parasitic infections." Parasite epidemiology and control 9 (2020): e00144.
Trasia, Reqgi First. "The role of the parasite life cycle in pathogenesis of infectious diseases." Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Sains dan Teknologi 7.1 (2022): 443556.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Valkiūnas, Gediminas, and Carter T. Atkinson. "Introduction to life cycles, taxonomy, distribution, and basic research techniques." Avian malaria and related parasites in the tropics: ecology, evolution and systematics (2020): 45-80.
Trasia, Reqgi First. "The role of the parasite life cycle in pathogenesis of infectious diseases." Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Sains dan Teknologi 7.1 (2022): 443556.
Santa, Maria A., et al. "A review on invasions by parasites with complex life cycles: the European strain of Echinococcus multilocularis in North America as a model." Parasitology 148.13 (2021): 1532-1544.
Benesh, Daniel P., Geoff Parker, and James C. Chubb. "Life-cycle complexity in helminths: What are the benefits?." Evolution 75.8 (2021): 1936-1952.
Cerutti, Aude, Nicolas Blanchard, and Sébastien Besteiro. "The bradyzoite: a key developmental stage for the persistence and pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis." Pathogens 9.3 (2020): 234.
Mévélec, Marie-Noëlle, Zineb Lakhrif, and Isabelle Dimier-Poisson. "Key limitations and new insights into the Toxoplasma gondii parasite stage switching for future vaccine development in human, livestock, and cats." Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology 10 (2020): 607198.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Runghen, Rogini, et al. "Network analysis: ten years shining light on host–parasite interactions." Trends in Parasitology 37.5 (2021): 445-455.
López-Osorio, Sara, Jenny J. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, and Luis M. Gómez-Osorio. "Overview of poultry Eimeria life cycle and host-parasite interactions." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 7 (2020): 384.
Pinto, Derek J., and Sumiti Vinayak. "Cryptosporidium: host-parasite interactions and pathogenesis." Current Clinical Microbiology Reports 8 (2021): 62-67.
Costa-da-Silva, Ana Caroline, et al. "Immune responses in leishmaniasis: an overview." Tropical medicine and infectious disease 7.4 (2022): 54.
Mukhopadhyay, Debanjan, David Arranz-Solís, and Jeroen PJ Saeij. "Influence of the host and parasite strain on the immune response during Toxoplasma infection." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10 (2020): 580425.
Elmahallawy, Ehab Kotb, Abdulsalam AM Alkhaldi, and Amira A. Saleh. "Host immune response against leishmaniasis and parasite persistence strategies: A review and assessment of recent research." Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 139 (2021): 111671.
Zheng, Shaowen, et al. "Porphyromonas gingivalis survival skills: Immune evasion." Journal of periodontal research 56.6 (2021): 1007-1018.
Hambrook, Jacob R., and Patrick C. Hanington. "Immune evasion strategies of schistosomes." Frontiers in immunology 11 (2021): 624178.
Mustafa, Hamssa M., Anas Abdullah Hamad, and Osama A. Mohsein. "Investigating Specific Calprotectin and Immunological Markers Associated With Intestinal Infections Caused by Entamoeba histolytica." Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 18.4 (2024).
Khan, Sameer Ullah, Kaneez Fatima, and Fayaz Malik. "Understanding the cell survival mechanism of anoikis-resistant cancer cells during different steps of metastasis." Clinical & experimental metastasis 39.5 (2022): 715-726.
Pinto, Derek J., and Sumiti Vinayak. "Cryptosporidium: host-parasite interactions and pathogenesis." Current Clinical Microbiology Reports 8 (2021): 62-67.
Badparva, Ebrahim, and Farnaz Kheirandish. "Blastocystis hominis: A pathogenic parasite." Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 15.4 (2020): e97388.
Rawat, Aadish, et al. "Cysteine proteases: Battling pathogenic parasitic protozoans with omnipresent enzymes." Microbiological Research 249 (2021): 126784.
Humayun, Mouhita, et al. "Innate immune cell response to host-parasite interaction in a human intestinal tissue microphysiological system." Science advances 8.18 (2022): eabm8012.
Pérez‐Mazliah, Damián, Alexander I. Ward, and Michael D. Lewis. "Host‐parasite dynamics in Chagas disease from systemic to hyper‐local scales." Parasite immunology 43.2 (2021): e12786.
Liempi, Ana, et al. "Comparative ex vivo infection with Trypanosoma cruzi and Toxoplasma gondii of human, canine and ovine placenta: Analysis of tissue damage and infection efficiency." Parasitology international 76 (2020): 102065.
Mukhopadhyay, Debanjan, David Arranz-Solís, and Jeroen PJ Saeij. "Influence of the host and parasite strain on the immune response during Toxoplasma infection." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 10 (2020): 580425.
Frickel, Eva-Maria, and Christopher A. Hunter. "Lessons from Toxoplasma: Host responses that mediate parasite control and the microbial effectors that subvert them." Journal of Experimental Medicine 218.11 (2021): e20201314.
Hajj, Rana El, et al. "Toxoplasmosis: Current and emerging parasite druggable targets." Microorganisms 9.12 (2021): 2531.
Turner, Wendy C., et al. "The roles of environmental variation and parasite survival in virulence–transmission relationships." Royal Society open science 8.6 (2021): 210088.
Guttery, David S., et al. "Division and transmission: malaria parasite development in the mosquito." Annual Review of Microbiology 76.1 (2022): 113-134.
Hamad, A.A., Mustafa, H.M. & Mohsein, O.A. Detection of the levels of immune cytokines (IL4, IL5, TNF-α) in school-age and preschoolers with an Ascaris lumbricoides infection. J Parasit Dis 48, 782–787 (2024).
Wright, Ian, et al. "Parasites and vector-borne diseases disseminated by rehomed dogs." Parasites & vectors 13 (2020): 1-4.
Mojahed, Nooshin, Mohammad Ali Mohammadkhani, and Ashraf Mohamadkhani. "Climate crises and developing vector-borne diseases: a narrative review." Iranian journal of public health 51.12 (2022): 2664.
O'Neal, Anya J., et al. "Lipid hijacking: a unifying theme in vector-borne diseases." Elife 9 (2020): e61675.
Zahedi, Alireza, and Una Ryan. "Cryptosporidium–an update with an emphasis on foodborne and waterborne transmission." Research in Veterinary Science 132 (2020): 500-512.
Yugo, Danielle M., and Xiang-Jin Meng. "Hepatitis E virus: foodborne, waterborne and zoonotic transmission." International journal of environmental research and public health 10.10 (2013): 4507-4533.
Singal, Amit G., Pietro Lampertico, and Pierre Nahon. "Epidemiology and surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma: New trends." Journal of hepatology 72.2 (2020): 250-261.
Pullan, Rachel L., et al. "Spatial parasite ecology and epidemiology: a review of methods and applications." Parasitology 139.14 (2012): 1870-1887.
Farrell, Maxwell J., Lea Berrang-Ford, and T. Jonathan Davies. "The study of parasite sharing for surveillance of zoonotic diseases." Environmental Research Letters 8.1 (2013): 015036.\
De Vlas, S. J., et al. "Review papers: statistical models for estimating prevalence and incidence of parasitic diseases." Statistical Methods in Medical Research 2.1 (1993): 3-21.
Sissay, Menkir M., Arvid Uggla, and Peter J. Waller. "Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia." Tropical Animal Health and Production 39 (2007): 521-531.
Guerra, Carlos A., et al. "Assembling a global database of malaria parasite prevalence for the Malaria Atlas Project." Malaria journal 6 (2007): 1-13.
Noviyanti, Rintis, et al. "Implementing parasite genotyping into national surveillance frameworks: feedback from control programmes and researchers in the Asia–Pacific region." (2020): 1-20.
Farlow, Robert, Tanya L. Russell, and Thomas R. Burkot. "Nextgen Vector Surveillance Tools: sensitive, specific, cost-effective and epidemiologically relevant." Malaria journal 19.1 (2020): 432.
Goh, Brendon, et al. "The application of spectroscopy techniques for diagnosis of malaria parasites and arboviruses and surveillance of mosquito vectors: A systematic review and critical appraisal of evidence." PLoS neglected tropical diseases 15.4 (2021): e0009218.
Belkessa, Salem, et al. "Prevalence and clinical manifestations of Giardia intestinalis and other intestinal parasites in children and adults in Algeria." The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene 104.3 (2021): 910.
Mustafa, Hamssa Majid1; Hamad, Anas Abdullah2; Mohsein, Osama A.3,4. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia Predominance in Iraq’s Southern Governorates. International Journal of Environmental Health Engineering 13(1):10, April 2024.
Chagas, Úrsula Maira Russo, et al. "Correlations between tissue parasite load and common clinical signs in dogs naturally infected by Leishmania infantum." Veterinary Parasitology 291 (2021): 109368.
de Carvalho, Bruna Caroline, et al. "Multiparametric analysis of host and parasite elements in new world tegumentary leishmaniasis." Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 12 (2022): 956112.
Garedaghi, Yagoob. "A review of the importance of stool test in the diagnosis of intestinal parasites." Int J Med Parasitol Epidemiol Sci Volume 1.2 (2020): 26.
Guzman, Carolina, Hector H. Garcia, and Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru. "Current diagnostic criteria for neurocysticercosis." Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine (2021): 197-203.
Yacubian, Elza Márcia, et al. "Common infectious and parasitic diseases as a cause of seizures: geographic distribution and contribution to the burden of epilepsy." Epileptic Disorders 6 (2022): 994-1019.
Pittman, Kelly J., and Laura J. Knoll. "Long-term relationships: the complicated interplay between the host and the developmental stages of Toxoplasma gondii during acute and chronic infections." Microbiology and molecular biology reviews 79.4 (2015): 387-401.
Halliez, Marie CM, and André G. Buret. "Extra-intestinal and long term consequences of Giardia duodenalis infections." World journal of gastroenterology: WJG 19.47 (2013): 8974.
Tavares, R. G., et al. "Molecular techniques for the study and diagnosis of parasite infection." Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 17 (2011): 239-248.
Ndao, Momar. "Diagnosis of parasitic diseases: old and new approaches." Interdisciplinary perspectives on infectious diseases 2009.1 (2009): 278246.
Zhang, Chi, et al. "Deep learning for microscopic examination of protozoan parasites." Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 20 (2022): 1036-1043.
Valkiūnas, Gediminas, et al. "A comparative analysis of microscopy and PCR-based detection methods for blood parasites." Journal of Parasitology 94.6 (2008): 1395-1401.
Ranjan, Koushlesh, P. Minakshi, and Gaya Prasad. "Application of molecular and serological diagnostics in veterinary parasitology." J Adv Parasitol 2.4 (2015): 80-99.
Singh, Balbir. "Molecular methods for diagnosis and epidemiological studies of parasitic infections." International Journal for Parasitology 27.10 (1997): 1135-1145.
Kumar, Niranjan, et al. "Internal parasite management in grazing livestock." Journal of parasitic diseases 37.2 (2013): 151-157.
Hutson, Kate Suzanne, et al. "A decision support tool for parasite management in fish aquaculture." Reviews in Aquaculture 14.3 (2022): 1656-1670.
Page, Stephen W. "Antiparasitic drugs." Small animal clinical pharmacology 2 (2008): 198-260.
Dziduch, Katarzyna, Dominika Greniuk, and Monika Wujec. "The current directions of searching for antiparasitic drugs." Molecules 27.5 (2022): 1534.
World Health Organization. "Prevention and control of intestinal parasitic infections: report of a WHO Expert Committee [meeting held in Geneva from 3 to 7 March 1986]." (1987).
Sadhukhan, Sanjoy Kumar. "Prevention and Control of Parasitic Zoonoses." Textbook of Parasitic Zoonoses. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2022. 83-90.
Published
2024-12-09
How to Cite
Hamssa M. Mustafa. (2024). Understanding Parasitic Infections: The Ultimate Guide to Pathogenesis and Spread. Central Asian Journal of Medical and Natural Science, 6(1), 106-120. Retrieved from https://cajmns.centralasianstudies.org/index.php/CAJMNS/article/view/2677
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