Physical Efficacy Among High School Female: Does Physical Exercise Outcome Expectations Matter?
Abstract
This study aims to (1) identify whether students’ age, body mass index, outcome expectation for exercise can predict their physical exercise Self-Efficacy, and (2) investigate the differences in physical exercise Self-Efficacy, outcome expectation for exercise between the groups of BMI classes and grade. A descriptive predictive correlational design was used to guide this study. This study was conducted in Ramadi City, Anbar Governorate, Iraq. The study included a simple random sample of 450 female high school students. The study instrument includes participants’ sociodemographic characteristics, the Stages of Change Scale for Exercise (Short Form), The Exercise Outcome Expectation Scale. Data were collected using a self-reported instrument. The statistical package for social science, version 27 was used for data analysis. The study results revealed that participants’ age and exercising together positively predict more their Self-Efficacy of engaging in regular physical exercise. On the other hand, participants’ BMI negatively predicts their Self-Efficacy. There are statistically significant differences in Negative Affect, Inconvenient to Exercise, and overall Self-Efficacy among grade groups. There is a statistically significant difference in rewards among BMI groups. The researchers concluded the older the student, the greater the Self-Efficacy of engaging in regular physical exercise.
References
National Health Service. “Benefits of Exercise,” Aug. 4, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/exercise-health-benefits/. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
M. M. Ahmed and A. B. Naji, “Assessment of Health Beliefs Regarding Weight Control Among Overweight and Obese Employees in University of Mosul: Applying Health Belief Model,” Kufa Journal for Nursing Sciences, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 38–43, 2021. doi: https://doi.org/10.36321/kjns.vi20212.2018.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], “How Much Physical Activity Do Adults Need?,” Jun. 2, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/adults/index.htm. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
University of Rhode Island, “Exercise: Stages of Change (Short Form),” 2024. [Online]. Available: https://web.uri.edu/cprc/measures/exercise/stages-of-change-short-form/. [Accessed: May 18, 2024].
National Health Services Inform, “Benefits of Exercise,” Nov. 30, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.nhsinform.scot/healthy-living/keeping-active/benefits-of-exercise/. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], “Benefits of Physical Activity,” Aug. 1, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm. [Accessed: Mar. 24, 2024].
HealthHub, “Health Benefits of Exercise and Physical Activity,” Ministry of Singapore, Nov. 2, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/physical%20activity%20benefits. [Accessed: Mar. 26, 2024].
Helpguide.org International, “Exercise and Fitness: The Mental Health Benefits of Exercise,” 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.helpguide.org/articles/healthy-living/the-mental-health-benefits-of-exercise.htm. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research [MFMER], “Exercise: 7 Benefits of Regular Physical Activity,” 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/exercise/art-20048389. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
National Library of Medicine - MedlinePlus, “Benefits of Exercise,” Aug. 30, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://medlineplus.gov/benefitsofexercise.html. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
D. P. Devanand, A. V. Masurkar, and T. Wisniewski, “Vigorous, Regular Physical Exercise May Slow Disease Progression in Alzheimer’s Disease,” Alzheimer’s & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 2023. doi: https://doi-org.ezproxy.okcu.edu/10.1002/alz.12946.
D. M. Baji and Q. Q. Mohammed, “Eating Disorders and Its Related Factors Among Adolescents at Secondary Schools in Al-Basra City,” Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, vol. 13, no. 3, p. 313, 2019.
M. Ahmed, A. Naji, and N. Younis, “Efficacy of the Health Belief Model in Improving Weight Control Beliefs Among Employees in University of Mosul A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Teikyo Medical Journal, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 4659–4664, 2022. doi: https://doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.03.28.
M. Ahmed and A. Naji, “Assessment of Weight Control Behaviors Among Employees in University of Mosul,” Natural Volatiles & Essential Oils, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 8996–9002, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.nveo.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1886%0Ahttps://www.cabdirect.org/globalhealth/abstract/20220161564.
Harvard Health Publishing - Harvard Medical School, “Staying Healthy: Exercising to Relax,” Jul. 20, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/exercising-to-relax. [Accessed: Mar. 25, 2024].
A. Niama and A. Naji, “Efficacy of the Health Belief Model on Older Adults’ Physical Activity at a Geriatric Care Home in Baghdad City,” International Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 6, no. S1, pp. 6178–6186, 2022. doi: https://doi.org/10.53730/ijhs.v6ns1.6385.
G. Alabedi and A. Naji, “Impact of Physical Activity Program Upon Elderly Quality of Life at Al-Amara City/Iraq,” Medico-Legal Update, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 544–549, 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.37506/mlu.v20i3.1567.
A. Basha and A. Naji, “Processes of Change for Weight Control Behavior Among Collegians,” Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 1369–1374, 2019. doi: https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-5506.2019.02637.8.
R. Hameed and R. Faraj, “Efficacy of A Theory-Based Health Education in Enhancing High School Female Student’s Preconception Health Behaviors in Baghdad City,” Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, vol. 9, no. 12, p. 895, 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-5506.2018.01962.9.
L. Brannon, J. A. Updegraff, and J. Feist, Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health, 10th ed. Cengage, 2021.
J. E. Stets and P. J. Burke, “Social Comparison in Identity Theory,” Communal Functions of Social Comparison, vol. 1, pp. 39–59, Mar. 21, 2014.
D. Kgokong and R. Parker, “Physical Activity in Physiotherapy Students: Levels of Physical Activity and Perceived Benefits and Barriers to Exercise,” The South African Journal of Physiotherapy, vol. 76, no. 1, 2020.
P. Dasgupta et al., “Spatial and Temporal Variations in Cervical Cancer Screening Participation Among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Women, Queensland, Australia, 2008–2017,” Journal of Medical Screening.
W. M. Rodgers and L. R. Brawley, “The Influence of Outcome Expectancy and Self-Efficacy on the Behavioral Intentions of Novice Exercisers,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 26, no. 7, pp. 618–634, Apr. 1996.
B. Resnick and C. Nigg, “Testing a Theoretical Model of Exercise Behavior for Older Adults,” Nursing Research, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 80–88, Mar. 1, 2003.
L. Bacon and L. Bacon, Health at Every Size: The Surprising Truth About Your Weight, BenBella Books, Inc., 2010.
T. L. Vollmer et al., “Exercise as Prescriptive Therapy in Multiple Sclerosis: A Consensus Conference White Paper,” International Journal of MS Care, vol. 14, SUPPL. 3, pp. 2-16, 2012.
M. Eynon, J. Foad, J. Downey, Y. Bowmer, and H. Mills, “Assessing the Psychosocial Factors Associated with Adherence to Exercise Referral Schemes: A Systematic Review,” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 638–650, May 2019.
R. E. Rhodes and B. Fiala, “Building Motivation and Sustainability into the Prescription and Recommendations for Physical Activity and Exercise Therapy: The Evidence,” Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, vol. 25, no. 5–6, pp. 424–441, Jan. 1, 2009.
R. E. Rhodes, D. McEwan, and A. L. Rebar, “Theories of Physical Activity Behavior Change: A History and Synthesis of Approaches,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 42, pp. 100–109, May 1, 2019.
Q. Mohammed and H. Hussein, “Perceived Social Support Among Nursing Collegian,” Texas Journal of Medical Science, vol. 12, September, pp. 8993, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.zienjournals.com/index.php/tjms/article/download/2375/1996.
A. L. Toriola, L. O. Amusa, G. Patriksson, and K. Kougioumtzis, “Physical Education as a Tool for Developing Health and Social Skills: Results of a Pilot Study in South Africa and Sweden,” African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 32342, 2010.
R. Guthold, G. A. Stevens, L. M. Riley, and F. C. Bull, “Global Trends in Insufficient Physical Activity Among Adolescents: A Pooled Analysis of 298 Population-Based Surveys with 1· 6 Million Participants,” The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 23–35, 2020.
F. F. Reichert, A. J. Barros, M. R. Domingues, and P. C. Hallal, “The Role of Perceived Personal Barriers to Engagement in Leisure-Time Physical Activity,” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 515–519, 2007.
L. Lu, X. Guo, and J. Zhao, “A Unified Nonlocal Strain Gradient Model for Nanobeams and the Importance of Higher Order Terms,” International Journal of Engineering Science, vol. 119, pp. 265–277, 2017.
M. Grasdalsmoen, H. R. Eriksen, K. J. Lønning, and B. Sivertsen, “Physical Exercise and Body-Mass Index in Young Adults: A National Survey of Norwegian University Students,” BMC Public Health, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1-9, 2019.
K. Glanz, B. Rimer, and K. Viswanath, Health Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
S. V. Benisovich, J. S. Rossi, G. J. Norman, and C. R. Nigg, “Development of a Multidimensional Measure of Exercise Self-Efficacy,” Poster presented at the Society of Behavioral Medicine (SBM), New Orleans, LA, Mar. 1998.
B. H. Marcus, V. C. Selby, R. S. Niaura, and J. S. Rossi, “Self-Efficacy and the Stages of Exercise Behavior Change,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 60–66, 1992. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1992.10607557.
B. Resnick, S. Zimmerman, D. Orwig, A. Furstenberg, and J. Magaziner, “Model Testing for Reliability and Validity of the Outcome Expectations for Exercise Scale,” Nursing Research, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 293–299, 2001.
Dustin et al., “Reliability and Validity of the Self-Efficacy for Exercise in Epilepsy and the Outcome Expectations for Exercise in Epilepsy Scales,” Journal of Nursing Measurement, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 22–40, 2017.
C. J. Murrock and F. Gary, “Psychometric Evaluations of the Efficacy Expectations and Outcome Expectations for Exercise Scales in African American Women,” PubMed, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 98–102, Jan. 1, 2014.
M. Choi and D. Joo, “Korean Version of the Outcome Expectations for Exercise Scale-2: Validation Study,” Korean Journal of Adult Nursing, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 580–587, 2012. doi: https://doi-org.ezproxy.okcu.edu/10.7475/kjan.2012.24.6.580.
Hussien, J. Brunet, A. J. Romain, L. Lemelin, and A. Baillot, “Living with Severe Obesity: Adults’ Physical Activity Preferences, Self-Efficacy to Overcome Barriers and Motives,” Disability & Rehabilitation, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 590–599, 2022. doi: https://doi-org.ezproxy.okcu.edu/10.1080/09638288.2020.1773944.
G. Clum, J. Rice, M. Broussard, C. Johnson, and L. Webber, “Associations Between Depressive Symptoms, Self-Efficacy, Eating Styles, Exercise and Body Mass Index in Women,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 577–586, 2014. doi: https://doi-org.ezproxy.okcu.edu/10.1007/s10865-013-9526-5.
A. Brooks and J. B. Freeman, “Conceptual Knowledge Predicts the Representational Structure of Facial Emotion Perception,” Nature Human Behaviour, vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 581-591, Aug. 2018.
Ahmed, A. Naji, and N. Younis, “Efficacy of an Educational Program Based on Health Belief Model to Enhancing Weight Control Behaviors Among Employees in University of Mosul: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Bionatura, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1–10, 2023. doi: https://doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.03.2.
A. Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory: An Agentic Perspective,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 1–26, 2001. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.
Copyright (c) 2024 Maryam Ayad Lattef, Aysen Kamal M. Noori
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
